Genus HYALOMMA Koch 1844

 The genus Hyalomma is a small flourishing group of ixodid ticks well adapted to living in arid biotopes. A high degree of adaptation to hot and dry open habitats becomes apparent in the morphology (well developed spherical eyes, high legs), physiology (successful metamorphosis under reduced humidity) and behavior (active search of host) of species of this genus. Ticks of this genus occur only in dry areas of the Old World and are absent from similar biotopes of America and Australia. The species diversity centre is in the deserts of Central Asia, and the Near and Middle East. Principal hosts of most species are various kinds of livestock, and as a result, these ticks usually have extended ranges. Most species are three-host, but there are one-host and two-host species as well. Immature stages mainly feed on mammals and birds, but immature ticks of some species parasitize reptiles.

 Genus Hyalomma is a phylogenetically young group of ixodid ticks. Domestication and the development of cattle-breeding stimulated the evolution and biological progress of this group. These transformations continue to this day, as is apparent from the great number of intraspecific forms. Divergence of features is caused both by geographical isolation of populations (e.g. in the species H. marginatum and H. asiaticum) and by changes in the ecology and biology of separate populations (as in the pair H. detritum and H. scupense).

 Being mass parasites of livestock, ticks are vectors of many diseases to agricultural animals. Some species are also vectors of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, a serious disease in humans.

Map 60

 Africa: Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia; Europe: Italy, Albania, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia (Krasnodar Kray and Daghestan); Asia: Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran (to the south as far as Sistan, unpublished data), Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kirghizia (Fergana Valley), Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

 Specific parasite of tortoises, all stages feed on Testudo graeca, T. hermanni, and T. horsfieldi. Infestation rate of tortoises can be high, over 50 adults on one animal. Adults are also found on hedgehogs and extremely rarely on other mammals. Immature ticks successfully feed on mammals, birds, and other species of reptiles. Often times, the molting of larvae and nymphs takes place on the body of a tortoise.

 Literature: Apanaskevich (2003), Leontyeva and Kolonin (2002).

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 Kenya and Tanzania.

 Principal hosts of adults are cattle and large wild ungulates. Nymphs were collected on hares.

 Literature: Apanaskevich and Horak (2008b).

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 Africa: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan, and Ethiopia; Europe: Italy, Greece, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Russia (North Caucasus and Astrakhan Oblast); Asia from Turkey to the east as far as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Tajikistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and to the south as far as Yemen and Saudi Arabia. It was also reported from China (Xingjiang and Gansu).

 Species prefers agricultural biotopes of hilly plains, foothills, oases, and river valleys.

 Adults parasitize all kinds of livestock, preferring cattle. In Sudan, they prefer horses. Ticks rarely infest wild ungulates. Immature ticks feed on the same hosts. Life cycle is three-host, but sometimes it can be two-host. In Turkmenistan, engorged females mainly drop from hosts in livestock buildings and cow yards. In Egypt, where H. anatolicum and H. excavatum occur, the former parasitizes hosts in summer, whereas the latter parasitizes hosts in winter.

 It is a vector of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, theileriosis, and other diseases in livestock.

 Literature: Kolonin et al. (1994), Teng and Jiang (1991), Hoogstraal et al. (1981), Walker et al.(2003), Estrada-Peña et al. (2004), Apanaskevich and Horak (2005).

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 Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

 Adults usually parasitize domestic goats, but will occasionally parasitize sheep as well. Immature ticks were collected from the rodents Acomys dimidiatus. Rare species.

 Literature: Pegram et al. (1982a), Hoogstraal et al. (1983), Diab et al. (1985), Al-Asgah et al. (1990).

Map 15

 Turkey, Syria (northern), Iraq (northern), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia (Daghestan and Astrakhan Oblast), Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Mongolia, and China (Xingjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, and Jilin).

 Principal hosts of imago are livestock. Immature ticks parasitize small mammals. This species is a vector of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever.

 This species is divided into three subspecies: H. asiaticum caucasicum Pomerantzev, 1939 occurs in western parts of the range, and to the east as far as the Caspian Sea and Iran; H. asiaticum asiaticum Schulze and Schlottke, 1929 spreads farther to the east, as far as China and Mongolia; H. asiaticum kozlovi Olenev, 1931 inhabits China and south-western Mongolia. H. a. asiaticum and H. a. caucasicum often interbreed and produce fertile offspring. According to H. Hoogstraal, in Iran, where the ranges of these subspecies overlap, subspecies identification is problematic. All subspecies have small ecological differences.

Literature: Hoogstraal and Valdez (1980), Dash et al. (1988), Teng and Jiang (1991), Kolonin et al. (1994), Filippova et al. (1995), Apanaskevich (2002),

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 Pakistan (Karachi), India, and Nepal.

 Principal hosts of imago are livestock, but there were also collections from wild mammals and humans. Immature ticks feed on small mammals.

 Literature: Kaiser and Hoogstraal (1964).

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 North Africa to the south as far as Senegal, Mali, Chad, Sudan, and Kenya; Canary Islands; Asia: Turkey (eastern), Israel, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kirghizia (Fergana Valley), Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, India, and China (Xingjiang).

 Adults parasitize livestock, preferring camels. Life cycle can be one-host, two-host, or three-host. Immature ticks feed on small or large mammals, dependant upon life-cycle.